Although the patent (US3500823) belong's to both Philip Richardson and Alfredo Lopez, Jr., the earliest substantial paper includes Franklyn Coombs and Robert Adams. With some effort, I was able to obtain the original patent from the USPTO. As far as I know, this is really the first capacitive biopotential sensor, though there are some references that talk about dry biopotential sensing prior to this. Amazingly, Richardson has a web presence and even an email address!
Introduction
The development of capacitive biopotential measurement began in the late 60's with Lopez and Richardson's capacitive electrocardiographic sensor [1-3]. Based on a black stained anodized aluminum electrode and an ultra-high input impedance circuit (30,000 MΩ), the sensor was attached to unprepared skin using an elastic strap.
Theory
Preparation of the skin by abrasion and application of a conductive paste or gel are, for the most part, necessary in biopotential recordings such as electrocardiography (ECG), electromyography (EMG), and electroencephalography (EEG). The reason is to minimize the variation of the impedance between electrode and skin with respect to the input impedance of the amplifier. This, in turn, minimizes the amplitude of motion-artifacts. In ECG and EMG, studies inevitably involve movement, e.g., the aerobic stress test. The impact of this movement is somewhat alleviated by the fact that ECG and EMG signals are measured in the millivolts (mV). In EEG, though much less movement is involved, micro-motion artifacts can still be bothersome, as EEG is measured in microvolts (μV).
In addition to electrode-skin impedance variation, artifacts linked to motion can also be coupled into the signal by polarization effects at the electrode due to non-zero DC current. When the electrode is stationary, non-zero DC current from the sensor causes the system to polarize. Because the system is biochemical, there will be a finite response time. Any sudden shifts in electrode position will require the stystem to restabilize. The voltage shifts resulting from this restabilization will contribute to motion artifacts. This will be very complicated - I would guess that the speed at which the system recovers is related to the amount of input current. The more current there is, the faster the polarization will stabilize. So, it makes sense either to have a lot of input current, or none at all.
The claim of Richardson and Lopez is in convential electrodes, change in ohmic contact (via the paste) is responsible for motion artifacts. Since in a capacitive electrode there is no ohmic contact, then there will be no motion artifacts. That this is true is not completely clear. If there is motion the capacitance may change, which would induce a voltage change.
Electrode
Richardson and Lopez used an anodized aluminum disk as the electrode, though in their patent [3], they claim any conductive material such as "copper, aluminum, or stainless steel having an insulation on its outer or skin contacting surface." In this case, the insulating coating was produced using an anodizing process. Here they claim that the aluminum oxide is used so that the film will be "free from pores or grain structure". To produce the film, they immerse the electrode in a standard sulphuric acid anodizing bath for 1.1 hours. The voltage is brought up to 100V using 100A/sq. ft. The process is finalized by dying the oxide, and immersing in hot water for oxide sealing.
To obtain the dimensions of the insulating layer, they measured the capacitance and back-calculated the thickness. For the said electrode, the resistance was greater than 4 GΩ and the capacitance was 5000 pF at 30 Hz. It is unclear why the capacitance is given in terms of frequency. Assuming a dielectric constant of 9, they calculated the thickness to be 0.7 mil.
Conclusions
Richardson, et al. [1] end with a very important (and honest) point, that "the production of motion artifacts caused by change incapacity coupling... limits the use of this type of electrode." In fact, this will the be the problem with a capacitive electrode-skin junction. With any sort of movement, the capacitance will change because the contact area will change. One way of addressing this is to make the contact area conductive, but to have a fixed capacitor between the amplifier and the contacting electrode.
Further Thoughts
One thing that was not mentioned above is the issue of skin potential artifacts in EEG. Present at low frequencies (<0.1 Hz), these artifacts result from biochemical changes in skin and are related to the galvanic skin response. When necessary, the most common way of eliminating such artifacts is to abrade the scalp aggressively, to the point of drawing blood [4].
References
[1] P. C. Richardson, F. K. Coombs, and R. M. Adams, "Some new electrode techniques for long-term physiologic monitoring," Aerosp Med, vol. 39, no. 7, pp. 745-50., 1968.
[2] A. Lopez, Jr. and P. C. Richardson, "Capacitive electrocardiographic and bioelectric electrodes," IEEE Trans Biomed Eng, vol. BME-16, no. 1, p. 99, 1969.
[3] P. Richardson and A. Lopez, Jr., "Electrocardiographic and Bioelectric Capacitive Electrode," U. S. Patent 14,860,040, March 17, 1970.
[4] T. W. Picton, S. Bentin, P. Berg, E. Donchin, S. A. Hillyard, R. Johnson, Jr., G. A. Miller, W. Ritter, D. S. Ruchkin, M. D. Rugg, and M. J. Taylor, "Guidelines for using human event-related potentials to study cognition: recording standards and publication criteria," Psychophysiology, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 127-152, 2000.
Dear Tim,
Is there a copy available of the circuit diagram for your EEG amp and ADC?
I am planning a study project and your approach looks very thorough.
Thanks for your reply.
Peter
Posted by: Peter Nielsen at June 20, 2004 1:25 AMHi Time,
I have read a small abstract about your capacitive electrode patent US3500823.
We would like to know more and if this electrode is available on the market.
We are handling some R&D in ECG field and we would like to use it.
Please advice.
Best regards
Patrick Sellem
Business Manager
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